Mandukya Karika Lecture 137 on 17-January-2024

Full Transcript (Not Corrected)

Gaudapada was trying to explain to us what Samsara or Jagat is. Actually, there is no problem with Jagat, but our attachment to the Jagat is the real problem. Even a Jeevanmukta experiences this world, but he knows it is the Leela of Brahman. The concept of Leela is crucial for us to understand a little bit about a Jeevanmukta. We might think a Jeevanmukta sees everything as we do. If that were true, then he would not be a Jeevanmukta but just like us, a Jeeva. Once he understands the truth, he sees Brahman everywhere, in the form of Nama and Rupa. Astitvam, existence in the form of Nama, Rupa, and Guna, is how he experiences it. He knows they are nothing but existence. Just as a wise person looks at any gold ornament and sees it as nothing but gold, a Jeevanmukta sees the Karna, the cause, which is Brahman.

The world is the effect, and what creates this cause, which we have studied elaborately, is our mind. The mind's very nature is to think in terms of duality—subject and object, Karanam and Karyam, etc. In our last class, in the 59th verse, Gaudapada talked about Maya, and it was like, "Maya mayat bijat jayate tanmayo ankura." When a musician or a producer of illusion shows a mango tree, every audience sees a mango seedling growing, hanging with juicy, sweet, flavourful fruits, exactly of the nature of the seed. Gaudapada teaches one of the greatest truths: "Na sao nityo na cha uchyadi tadvat dharmeshu yojana." The Maya Ankura, an illusory tree, is not eternal; it remains as long as the illusion lasts and is not destroyable. This Maya takes on the form of each of our minds, making us see many things.

Gaudapada wants to convey that we are like the audience, and our Maya is the root cause. It takes the form of each one of our minds, making us see many things. This idea will be elaborated in the coming verses. The essential point to keep in mind is that Maya Ankura, the illusory tree, is not eternal, nor is it destroyable. Something that doesn't exist cannot be destroyed. What can be destroyed is appearances. Appearances are like the snake appearing in insufficient light, and when we understand the birth of the snake, we realize it is just an appearance, a superimposition, abhasa. Gaudapada concludes, "Tadvat Dharmesh Yojana," applying the same idea to the entire world, living and non-living, as Dharmesh refers to all living creatures and, by extension, the entire world. The world is not really non-existent because something non-existing can never be experienced; it is impossible.

Advaita Vedanta provides examples such as the horns of a hare, flowers grown in the sky, and the son of a barren woman. These things cannot be truly experienced. However, something that can be experienced is Mithya, which stands between neither real nor unreal. Examples of Mithya include the rope snake, silver in the shell, and water in the mirage. We may experience these, but subsequent analysis shows that they don't really exist. This is a profound truth, but how do we apply it in our day-to-day life?

In our daily lives, we often talk about destroying Samsara. However, Samsara cannot be destroyed because, in the first place, it doesn't even exist. What we experience is like Maya Bija. Given sufficient time, Maya will work itself out, indicating that it cannot be permanently real and will eventually fade away. If you're eager to finish it earlier, akin to watching a magic show, you can get up and leave or simply close your eyes. This doesn't mean you are killing it; it signifies that something that doesn't really exist but appears to be can be let go of effortlessly. By its very nature, as soon as the truth is known, as soon as light is brought, the illusion disappears.

Gaudapada wants to elaborate on how this understanding applies to our day-to-day life. When we identify with the world, age, relationships, and other aspects of our existence, we may feel compelled to listen to these talks. Gaudapada suggests that you don't need to put an end to it. The moment you realize that you are not the Jeeva but the Brahman, the illusion disappears because, in the first place, it was only an appearance. This is what Gaudapada aims to convey in the next few verses.

In the 60th verse, he mentions,

नाजेषु सर्वधर्मेषु शाश्वताशाश्वताभिधा ।

यत्र वर्णा न वर्तन्ते विवेकस्तत्र नोच्यते ॥ ६० ॥

nājeṣu sarvadharmeṣu śāśvatāśāśvatābhidhā |

yatra varṇā na vartante vivekastatra nocyate || 60 ||

60. The epithets of permanence or impermanence cannot be applied to unborn Jīvas. That which is indescribable by words cannot be discriminated (as real or unreal).

Here, dharma refers to all living beings. Ajeshu means unborn, implying that we are not born, and the world is not born. Specifically regarding the Jeevas, we are unborn. When we come to know that we are unborn through intense faith in the scriptures, as we study texts like Mandukya Upanishad along with the Karikas, discrimination arises regarding Brahman—shashvata (eternal) and nashashvata (temporary). From Brahman's point of view, there is no birth, as birth and death are under the sway of time. However, these terms cannot be applied where words cannot function, indicating discrimination. What is the discrimination?

Sri Ramakrishna often says that everything is temporary; God alone is real, and everything else is unreal, meaning temporary. The terms temporary and permanent cannot be applied from Brahman's viewpoint; they can only be applied from the Jeeva's point of view. When we are Sadhakas, engaged in Sadhana, which involves Viveka (discrimination) between good and evil, permanent and temporary, this is done through the instrumentality of the mind. Viveka is possible in that context. Yatho Vacho Nivarthanthe Aprāpya Manasā Saha

However, where even the word Viveka doesn't exist, let alone its function, nothing can be said. In such a state, there is no need for Viveka because there is nobody. Brahman doesn't start thinking, "Am I Brahman or am I not Brahman? Have I become Jagat, and have I become the cause of the Jagat?" All these things do not apply there; they are our imaginations from our bound point of view, from the mind's point of view.

Gaudapada aims to convey an idea that when we enter the dream state, our one single mind, which Gaudapada calls Advaya (non-dual), becomes, as it were, many. One mind becomes many, creating a division between the subject and the object—the experiencer and the experienced. This division happens through a peculiar power called Maya. In the waking state, our mind is one, but in the dream state, it divides through Maya.

Just as a carpenter wants to make furniture, he requires instruments. So we require the instrument called Maya to divide ourselves. If you want a little help, in the form of analogy, you put one bulb and put five tumblers of water on the table. And you will see five reflections, or ten pots of water, One sun, and you see one real sun and ten reflections. How many suns are there? Only one sun. But it appears as so many. These are all reflections. What is it that reflects? The water. So water is the analogy for the power of Maya, Because of the Maya. Similarly Vedantins give the example of empty pots. So there is a Ghatakasha. Ghata means pot. As if ten pots are separate. Even though all the pots are in space only, As if the space is divided into outside the pot, inside the pot. Outside the pot, only one. Inside the pot, ten numbers of pot spaces. But it is an illusion because space can never be divided at all.

Maya, or the power of illusion, is the force behind this division. When we dream, we see ourselves, others, and the world as if the mind were divided. In the dream state, everything seems real, but upon waking up, we realize that it was a creation of the mind, and everyone has their own dreams and divisions.

These are all very profound ideas. Anyway, let's analyse Karika 61 and 62.

The idea is straightforward. Seeing this waking state as real and the dream state as only an imaginary world is a misunderstanding. Just as when we dream, we perceive many divisions like the experiencer and the experienced. How many experiencers? Only one. How many experienced? Innumerable. But as soon as we wake up, we realize there is only one mind, and by the power of Avidya or Nidra Shakti, it has divided itself into innumerable objects, both living and non-living.

When we wake up, we come to know it is all one mind appearing as many, as it really has not become many. If the mind had truly become many objects, then it could never revert to being one mind when waking up. If the mind had truly become divided into many objects, upon waking up, one would find oneself suffering from multiple personality syndrome. Similarly, when we wake up, we see many things, but in reality, there is only one mind, referred to as Chaitanyam.

Here, the mind is equated to Chaitanyam, and one Chaitanyam, with the help of Avidya (or mind), creates the entire waking world. However, upon waking up from this waking world, referred to as Turiyavasta, we shouldn't mistake it for waking up into the deep sleep state, as that is also a state of bondage. In the Turiya state, the understanding dawns that "I am one, I am eternal, and I am Advaitam, non-dual." However, through the power of Maya, the mind appears and creates what Pauranikas or Bhaktas describe as Leela.

The difference between Leela and our experience of Maya is that in Maya, we think events in the waking state are real, while in the dream state, upon waking up, we realize it was only our imagination. It's like watching a cinema where adults never mistake the events as real. When Brahman is dreaming, it is a conscious dream, and He knows that He is dreaming, akin to daydreams. This is why it is called Leela, which means watching and enjoying something with full consciousness, understanding it is not real but enjoying it, much like enjoying a cinema. In contrast, Maya is considered reality.

When we wake up from the dream, we understand that what we thought was absolutely real in the dream state was actually just our imagination. Similarly, in the so-called waking state, when we wake up into the Turiya state, we understand the unreality of the waking state. If there is a body alive after this awakening, it is called the Jeevan Mukta state. In the Jeevan Mukta state, we enjoy the Leela, much like enjoying a cinema. It appears to be absolutely real, but we are always conscious that it is not real. We enjoy it like it's real, but we are not affected because it is not real. This is the essence of Leela, and this is the difference.

At this point of view, creation is Leela, and this is what Gaudapada wants to convey in the next few verses. First, let's look at Karika 61 and 62, which describe the condition of the dream state and aim to make us understand that the waking state is similar to the dream state. Let's read:

यथा स्वप्ने द्वयाभासं चित्तं चलति मायया ।

तथा जाग्रद्द्वयाभासं चित्तं चलति मायया ॥ ६१ ॥

अद्वयं च द्वयाभासं चित्तं स्वप्ने न संशयः ।

अद्वयं च द्वयाभासं तथा जाग्रन्न संशयः ॥ ६२ ॥

yathā svapne dvayābhāsaṃ cittaṃ calati māyayā |

tathā jāgraddvayābhāsaṃ cittaṃ calati māyayā || 61 ||

advayaṃ ca dvayābhāsaṃ cittaṃ svapne na saṃśayaḥ |

advayaṃ ca dvayābhāsaṃ tathā jāgranna saṃśayaḥ || 62 ||

61-62. As in dream, the mind is seen to act through Māyā manifesting the appearance of duality, so also in the waking state the mind is seen to act, through Māyā, producing the appearance of duality.

There is no doubt that the mind which is, in fact, non-dual, appears as dual in dream; in like manner, undoubtedly, the waking state, which is non-dual, appears as dual.

These verses emphasize that what we experience in the dream and waking states is absolutely the same, and both are completely unreal. That is the point Gaudapada wants to emphasize.

We have already encountered these ideas in the third section, known as the Advaita Prakaranam. Gaudapada is reiterating these concepts in the fourth chapter, which is, in essence, a repetition of the earlier three chapters. However, he introduces a beautiful analogy of the Alatha Deepa, a firebrand, the lighted tip of a stick, capable of producing various forms. When we stop moving it, we no longer see any forms. We previously addressed the question of where those forms came from and where they disappeared. The response given was that the forms were not real, and questioning the origin or disappearance of unreality is irrelevant. Forms are appearances but not reality. Reality is that which is permanent, while appearance is that which appears for a short time, disappearing when the cause is removed. This concept needs to be clearly understood.

In the dream state, the mind, referred to as Chittam, exhibits Abhasa (appearance) and Dvaya (division). It seems to divide itself into the subject and the object, the experiencer and the experience, the knower and the known, creating an illusion of duality. This division occurs as if the single mind from the waking state splits into two states: subject and object. The dream state is a state of Dvaya Abhasam. The one single mind, from the waking state, as if it divides itself into two states as I mentioned earlier. What are they? Subject and object. Subject means experiencer. How many subjects? Only one subject, only you because there is nobody else. Suppose you say that I have seen my neighbour talking to me. He talked nonsense. Who is seeing that he is talking nonsense? Only you are seeing. Because when you wake up you can't run to that fellow and say, why did you speak nonsense in my dream! Because poor man doesn't know anything about it. I have become the neighbour. That means I have become the object. Not one object. Living, non-living, innumerable, countless objects I have become. How did I create all those things? Chittam means our one mind. Chalati means divides itself into so many. That is the state of the dream. What is the state of the waking state? Tatha, exactly in the same way. Jagrat Dwaya Abhasam. Jagrat Avastha. In the waking state. Dwaya Abhasam. I and the entire whole world, consisting of living and non-living, and everything, So many, countless living beings, and countless non-living things. It is exactly, Chittam Chalati Mayaya. Mayaya here means, as I explained, keep in mind. When we use pure Maya, It belongs to Ishwara. Ishwara means, Nirguna Brahma plus Maya, Is called Ishwara. That is what Sri Ramakrishna says, Shakti. So, that is Mayaya. We have to substitute that word as, Avidyaya. Advayancha Dwaya Abhasam.

So, the same thing is repeating, In the 62nd verse also. The second part of the 61st Karika, Tatha, just like the dream state. Jagrat Dwaya Abhasam. There is no difference between the experience of various objects in this world. Because the one, Chidabhasa. Chidabhasa means reflected consciousness, plus the mind is called Chidabhasa. And Dwaya Abhasam. We see that is what Bhagwan Krishna wants to expound in the 13th chapter, kshetra kshetrajna vibhaga yoga

kṣhetra-jñaṁ chāpi māṁ viddhi sarva-kṣhetreṣhu bhārata

kṣhetra-kṣhetrajñayor jñānaṁ yat taj jñānaṁ mataṁ mama

How many Kshetras, fields, objects of experience? Sarva means almost infinite. And how many experiencers? Ekam. That is called Kshetrajna. The knower, the experiencer of the Kshetra is called Kshetrajna. Kshetrajna Chapi Maam Vidhi, Me, Bhagwan. But here, we have to say, because of Maya, Ishwara, as if, is divided into so many ways. Same thing, same idea is repeated in the next Karika also.

advayaṃ ca dvayābhāsaṃ cittaṃ svapne na saṃśayaḥ |

advayaṃ ca dvayābhāsaṃ tathā jāgranna saṃśayaḥ ||

So what he is repeating with slight variation. What is it? Nasamsaya. Absolutely, there is no doubt. One Advayam. That is, One, what is called, Mind. Jagrat Mind. What happens? Dwaya Abhasam. As if, divides itself into, Subject and object. One subject, but, many, many objects, both living and non-living. Chittam Swapne, when this Chittam, means our mind. Swapne, in the state of dream. Nasamsaya, absolutely no doubt about it. Because we ourselves understand it when we wake up. And he wants to say, Advayanch Dwaya Abhasam. This is the repetition of the same first line, half of the line. Exactly, Tatha, like the dream. Jagrat Avasthate. Jagrat. What is it? One single mind appears as the entire waking state, me and the universe. The Kshetragna is one, But the Kshetras are many. So, Advayam means one single Kshetragna Advaya Abhasam. As if, even that seeing, multiplicity is also, Abhasam only, appearance only. Nasamsaya, absolutely there is no doubt.

What is the essence of this one? The essence of this one is, Because of the Maya Shakti one appears to be many. So, we have to now analyse these two states. Which two states? Swapna and Jagrat. Or Jagrat and Swapna. When we probe any dream, first we take the example of any dream. Any dream, even for a split second, we discover there is a close correlation between the seer and the seen. This is called a relationship. Earlier we discussed the cause and effect relationship. Now we are discussing the seer and the seen. There is a beautiful book, separately written. It is an Advaitic, Prakarna Grantha, a simple text to explain the deep philosophical truths of Advaita. That is called Drik Drishya Viveka. The discrimination between Drik, means the seer, and Drishya, whatever is seen. And that can be yielded to us into certain principles. Let us say, about six. We have to divide this experience of our dream and discover six points there. Six points. What are the six points?

1. The Distinction between Seer and Seen: The seer and the seen are inherently different. What is perceived is not the same as the perceiver. The seer is not the seen, the seen is not the seer. The experiencer is different. I explained innumerable number of times during this Mandukya Karika. If I see a tree I know instinctively I can enjoy the tree. But I am not the tree. I don't say I am the tree. If I see a car, I am not the car. If I see my house, I know clearly, I am not my house. If the house goes up in flames, I don't go up in flames. If somebody breaks a part of the house, somebody is not breaking me. I am intact. But, such is the power of Maya, when we see our body, experience our body, we become identified. That is called Bandhana. And when we experience our mind, then also we identify. What do we experience in the body? I am a child. I am a young person. I am an old person. I am going to die. What do we experience in the mind? I am happy. I am unhappy. I am depressed. I am very, very laden with sorrow. Or I am elated with joy. And I love somebody. And somebody I don't love. Somebody loves me. And somebody doesn't love me. All these ideas are Antahkarana Vrittis. The Vrittis, the thoughts that are there in the mind. Antahkarana means mind. Inner instrument is called Antahkarana. But, I am not them. This is the first thing. Because the seer and the seen can never be the same.
2. Internal and External Perspective: The seer is within, and the seen is outside. The subjective experience originates from within the observer, while the external world is perceived as separate. So, I see I am here inside me. And then I see the outside world. Whatever I see outside. But when it comes to body-mind, I don't say actually it is outside. But I experience it as outside. When I am witnessing something, what is witnessed is external. And the witness or witness is internal. That is the second principle. The seer, the Sakshi, or the knower or the subject is always inside. And the seen is outside
3. Unity of the Seer and Multiplicity of the Seen: While the seen world is diverse and multifaceted, the seer remains singular. I see this tree. I see that house. I see that person. The whole world I see. So the whole world is many. But I am the one person only. That's all. The seer is one. The seen are many.
4. Sentience of the Seer and Inertness of the Seen: The seer possesses sentience (Chaitanya), while the seen is inert and insentient. Because Jada cannot experience anything. Jada doesn't even know I am Jada. Much less to say I am experiencing something. So Chaitanyam is pure Chaitanyam only. So the seer is sentient. But the seen is Jada, inert, insentient. That is the fourth principle.
5. Interdependence of the Seer and the Seen: Neither the seer nor the seen can exist independently. Neither the seer nor the seen can see itself. So the seer cannot say I am the seer. The seen cannot say I am being seen. What does it mean really? It means that the seen cannot exist without the seer. The seer also cannot exist without the seer. There is an anyonya ashraya sambandha. They go together. Seer and seen. Without the seen, nobody will be there who can be called a seer. Only when somebody sees, he is called a seer. And to be a seer, that person must be seeing, experiencing something. So they don't see them. I am the seer even though there is no seen. And the seen of course is Jada. It cannot say I am only the seen. I am Jada. I am inert. But there is no seer. So they come together and they vanish together. Very important. Because the jeeva who is called chidabhasa along with the mind. So if there is no mind, there is no chidabhasa. And if there is no chidabhasa, the mind itself will not be there. Even to say there is a mind, chidabhasa is necessary. Mind cannot say I exist without you.
6. And the sixth principle is the same thing. There cannot be both seer and seen at the same time. The seer cannot be the seen, and the seen cannot be the seer at the same time. This is with regard to Jagradhavasta. That is, when I am seeing you, I am the seer, you are the seen. But I cannot be both the seer and seen at the same time. But when you become the seer, you are the seer, I am the seen. That is possible. But at the same time, same seer, same seen can never be one and the same at the same time. I hope the idea is clear. So if we understand this idea, what it means, I am pure chaitanyam and I am advayam. And because of the power of maya, maya created the illusion that I have divided I, one, advaitam, I have divided myself with the power of avidya into both the subject and object, seer and the seen, experiencer and the experienced, knower and the known. So that is what the distinction is. Seer is one, kshetragna is one, kshetras are many. And this is the idea he wants to say. Why swapna is unreal? Because this division is purely illusory. And whatever is illusory is not real. And whatever is not real, that cannot be our nature. That is the final conclusion we have to come to. Then, Anandagiri adds something. What do we see? We see everything as something very important. Having understood these six principles, the next sixty-three and sixty-fourth Karikas also, it is exactly the same idea, repeated in different words.

We will go through it. It is not difficult to understand. So, sixty-three goes like this.

स्वप्नदृक् प्रचरन् स्वप्ने दिक्षु वै दशसु स्थितान् ।

अण्डजान् स्वेदजान्वाऽपि जीवान् पश्यति यान् ॥ ६३ ॥

svapnadṛk pracaran svapne dikṣu vai daśasu sthitān |

aṇḍajān svedajānvā'pi jīvān paśyati yān || 63 ||

63. The whole variety of Jīvas, born of eggs, moisture, etc., always seen by the dreamer when he goes about (in his dream) in all ten directions (have no existence apart from the mind of the dreamer).

These two go together actually, because this verse is incomplete. . It did not say jeeva and pashyatiya. That is, we will come to that. First, we will go to that next one also.

स्वप्नदृक्चित्तदृश्यास्ते न विद्यन्ते ततः पृथक् ।

तथा तद्दृश्यमेवेदं स्वप्नदृक्चित्तमिष्यते ॥ ६४ ॥

svapnadṛkcittadṛśyāste na vidyante tataḥ pṛthak |

tathā taddṛśyamevedaṃ svapnadṛkcittamiṣyate || 64 ||

64. These (beings) which are objects of the mind of the dreamer have no existence apart from his mind. Similarly, this mind of the dreamer is admitted to be the object of perception of the dreamer only. (Therefore the mind of the dreamer is not separate from the dreamer himself)

So, what does 'Jeeva' mean? That includes you, me, and every single person, or 'Jeeva,' even a mosquito. What do they do? Sometimes, many times, I mention: Do mosquitoes go through the three states - Jagrat, Swapna, Sushupti? Yes, every living creature goes through them, and even a mosquito dreams. So, a hungry mosquito, what do you think it dreams of? Nice food. Here is a person, a stupid fellow. He is drunk and sleeping. This is the holiest man. I can drink as much of the nectar as possible. So, another person, a big mosquito curtain, a very evil, wicked person, not doing any mosquito service. So, like that, we think.

Now, sixty-three, what is it? Swapna Druk, the seer of the Swapna. That means the person who is dreaming. Swapne Pracharan. So, in the Swapna Loka, the dream world, he is moving about. Pracharan means moving about. Where? Dasasu Dikshu Vaisthithan. So, what does he do? He goes on roaming in all ten directions. How many directions are there? If you take the English language, only four are there - East, West, South, North. But if you take Vedanta, there are ten. Where do these ten come from? First of all, we say four Dishas are there, corners are there. They are called Anai, Vayi. So, Agneya, Shanya, etc. So, between East and South, there is a corner. Between South and West, there is a corner. Between West and North, there is a corner. Between West and East, there is a corner. So, four plus four, eight. Above and below or inside and outside are called two more. So, ten.

So, this Jeeva, dreaming, what does he do? He goes on moving. What does he do? He goes on looking. All living creatures, by extension, everything living, non-living, but here only living. And all the living creatures are divided into four categories, which we have seen earlier.

So, Andaja and Svetaja. Andaja means born of an egg. Svetaja means born of moisture or sweat. Jeeva, Pashyatya, goes on experiencing all these people. As I said, by extension, it means every Jeeva. So, what are these four? All beings, according to Vedanta, are divided into four categories. What are they? First of all, Jarayuja, that is from the womb, like human beings, like some animals in a womb. Then Andaja, like birds, you know. We are also actually speaking Andajas only because the mother has those eggs. Only whether the egg is ripening inside the womb or outside the womb. That is the only difference. So, Andaja means these birds mainly, etc. And then Svetaja. So, they are not really born of moisture. Sveta means moisture or sweat. But where there are damp places, there the mosquitoes, the flies, the insects, they thrive. So, that is called taking birth through moisture. Then Udbija, from the seed. And Bija, Andaja, there is actually no difference, actually. Everything is born of a seed only or cause. So, these are called Udbija. Udbija means Uth, means breaking out the earth. So, these are called seeds, plants, trees, etc. These are the four creatures.

So, in Swapna, the individual goes on looking. So, what about this person who says Jagradavastha? Exactly the same. That is what he wants to say later on. Swapnadruk chittadrishyaste. Navidhyante tatha prudhak. Tatha tadrishyame vedam. Swapnadruk chittamishyate.

What Gaudapada wants to convey here is that all those things seen by this person in the dream, all the objects, are various forms of the mind. The mind is controlled by the so-called person, the dreamer. The dreamer should dream. The dreamer is dreaming. However, all these living and non-living things are manifestations of that one mind of the dreamer only. This means that the mind of the dreamer is admitted to be the object of perception of the dreamer only. In other words, the mind is the entire Swapna Prapancha, and the mind becomes the dreamer, the subject. The mind becomes all the objects that one is dreaming of. This means the mind alone is the entire universe.

Let us apply this also to the entire waking state. That is what Gaudapada wants to say. You have a mind. You have a world. You are happy. You are unhappy. You are bound. You are freed. Everything is in the mind only. There is no mind that is called Mukthi. That is, the mind is now sublated into Brahman. Until now, we said the mind is different. Brahman is different. The body is different. Brahman is different. External objects are different. Brahman is different. But once enlightenment comes, the whole mind is nothing but a manifestation of Brahman. And therefore, it is nothing but Brahman. And therefore, there is no world, there is no mind. When the mind disappears into Brahman, only Brahman remains. That is the idea he wants to instill in us, which we will discuss in our next class.